医生使用医疗APP动机分析电子商务毕业论文论文有关动机的英文翻译.doc 12页

'2015届本科生毕业论文(设计)英文资料翻译题目：医生使用医疗APP动机分析学生姓名：王涛学生学号：1001040135指导教师：胡蓉二级院系：信息与计算机学院专业班级：电子商务111班完成时间：2015年10月10日7 文献来源：ChristopherJ.CollinsSchoolofIndustrialandLaborRelationsCornellUniversityPaulJ.HangesDepartmentofPsychologyUniversityofMarylandEdwinA.LodeRobertH.SmithSchoolofRosinessUniversityofMaryland.HUMANPERFORMANCE.17(1).95-117成就动机与创业行为的关系研究：元分析创业是一个主要因素在国民经济;因此，重要的是要理解动机特征激励人成为企业家为何比其他人更成功。在本研究中，我们进行一项成就动机与企业家行为变量的关系的元分析。我们发现，动机特征和两个密切对应的创业生涯和企业家性能的选择。进一步，我们发现两个射影和自我报告的成就动机是有效的措施。最后，已知小组研究提出高效度系数比较个体差异的研究。几乎所有的资本主义体系的支持者都会同意，鼓励创新和创业的成功有利于持续健康和长期增长的一个国家的经济(Schumpeter，1961)。进一步，小企业说明超过50%的私营部门的就业和美国。国内生产总值(小型企业管理局办公室的宣传，2003)。因为在经济中创业是一个主导因素，研究学者调查了许多因素可能可以解释创业活动。尽管大量的最近研究趋向于关注业务的特点和行业环境或创业机会本身特点(Kaufmann&Dant，1998)，我们理解企业家将不会完成，除非我们了解他们的动机individualsinvolved(Venkataraman，1997)。事实上，最近的研究表明，动机特征是一个重要的因素在创业活动和成功(Baum，Locke.&Smith，2000;Stewart&Roth，2001)。研究企业家动机特征似乎特别有前景去帮助鉴定那些可能是最适合创业机会识别并利用市场的个体(Shane&Venkataraman，2000)。例如，个人特征和动机可能是使用由学校、职业顾问、投资者、政府机构等来识别可能适合承担和成功的创业企业个体。尽管潜在的个人特征的重要性，还有很多未解的问题关于这个动机和个人特征进行创业活动的角色，(Shane&Venkataraman，2000)。因此，在本文中，我们试图更好地了解一个重要的激励因素，成就需要，是同时与创业的选择作为一个职业性能在创业的角色。成就需要（nAch）的概念制定于1950年代(McClelland，Clark.Roby，&Atkinson19587 )。麦克理兰和他的同事认为，成就需求高的人更有程度上比成就需求低的人去从事充满活力和创新需要计划未来和个人的责任任务的结果的活动，。McClelland(1961)认为，成就需求高的人也应该更喜欢的任务，包括技能和努力，提供清晰的绩效反馈，适度的挑战和风险，他还认为，企业家的职位有更多的这些特征比其他类型的职位。Holland"s(1985)职业选择模型表明，个人将大部分被提供的环境特点和符合他们的个性的职业生涯所吸引。Holland"s(1985)也认为，当有一个合适工作环境性格和个性的地点则绩效和职业满意度更高。因此，正如McClelland(1961)提出，似乎成就需求高的个人应该被吸引和表现良好的创业工作。虽然有相当大的文献在成就动机和企业家精神领域，有重要的问题还没有得到解决。例如，Johnson(1990)进行了一次传统的文学评论，认为有证据表明成就动机和创业行为之间的关系。首先，由于叙事的本质，本文的成就动机和创业活动大小关系尚不清楚。事实上，许多研究显示了Johnson的成就动机和创业活动之间的关系的无意义。Johnson的报告也表明，在研究结果中有相当大的方差，暗示也许有成就动机和创业活动的关系的调节器。与传统的形成对比，元分析有可能通过定量结合个别研究估计的大小关系的结果解决这些问题，(Hunter&Schmidt，1990)，并且通过允许正式测试潜在的调节这些关系。这项研究有三个目标。首先，我们评估程度支持McClelland的说法进行了一次元分析回顾成就动机和创业研究的水平的分析问题。第二，我们确定和测试几个潜在的主持人之间成就动机和创业行动关系。第三，我们比较有效性的成就动机措施作为函数的测量方法(如，投影测量与自我报告问卷措施)。我们讨论我们的发现影响未来的研究和对组织和机构感权益的创业精神。背景和假设许多早期的工作成就动机进行宏观的分析。McClelland(1961)假设一个更高的成就需求平均水平的国家将会显示更多的去创业活动和经济增长比国家成就需求平均水平较低的国家。他发现了一个统计上的显著关系一个国家的成就需求平均水平(通过测量儿童故事)和随后的经济增长的国家。他还根据早些社会的历史记录发现了去证明创业活动之间的关系。然而,McClelland的说法并非没有异议(如Finison,1976;Frey,1984:Mazur&Rosa,1977)。BothFinison(1976)和(1977)MazurandRosa（1977）未能复制。麦克勒兰德的结果当他们纠正错误和使用统计1950年到数据预测经济增长到1971年,Frey(1984)发现McClelland7 的历史成就需求测试问题。因为它是很难隔离一个因素在社会层面上分析如此多的因果因素涉及(Siehl&Martin,1990),似乎更好的测试在McClelland论文微级上。事实上,有许多研究已经进行了检测不同个人和群体之间的成就动机。在个体差异的研究中,研究者们通常代表性的衡量需要成就用个体企业家和相关,与个人绩效(如公司增长,成功地获得资助)。关于研究探索在成就动机群体之间的差异,研究人员通常会利用“已知的群体”研究方法讨论了文学建构效度。这是,研究人员确定了两个或多个先前存在的群体(如。,企业家和经理人,科学家:和专业人士)和测试意味着在一些因变量的差异在这些人群。一些东西诸如:,在职业选择方面,研究人员检查了意味着成就动机的差异来测试麦克勒兰德的假设。关于工作性能,研究人员评估了成就动机差异足够高的表演团体的企业家。在社会层面上研究相比,个人和已知的集团研究允许清洁评估最初的假设麦克勒兰德。而其中一些微观方面的研究已经显示显著的成就动机和创业行为之间的关系,先前文献综述已经发现了三个主要问题。第一，这些评审一致指出低内部一致性和优先测量成就需求的重测信度,TAT（主题知觉测试：即这两种类型的可靠性往往少于60;Fineman,1977)。第二,尽管替代成就动机措施(即：自我报告)已经被开发出来,并且往往有高水平的内部一致性和两次试验法的稳定性(Fineman,1977;Spangler.1992),这些自我报告的措施既不同意射影成就动机措施(Fineman,1977;Spangler.1992)也不互相依存(Fineman,1977)。斯潘格勒(1992)报道一个元分析在主题知觉测试相关性和自我报告测量平均0.09。此外,他还发现,受主持人影响不同的成就动机的测量与其他变量和关联不同的有差异。鉴于上述两个点，我们决定包括主题知觉测试和问卷调查进行分析测量。第三,在先前的文献中已经联合研究使用不同的微(个人和组)水平的分析他们的评论。然而,不适当结论可能得出在不同级别的分析概念开发在一个级别的分析测试里，(OstroffSHarrison,1999):因此,在我们的分析中我们分离这两个级别。自从Spangler(1992)进行了之前的元分析的成就动机的研究,一些区别他研究的关键我们需要被提到。首先,在Spangler(1992)的研究中,只有115缺乏5或4%的研究他使用涉及企业家或创业活动。此外,Spangler的研究包括一个非常异构数组的因变量。7 包括智商测试分数、态度、寻求刺激,入学率在学术荣誉计划、性能环损耗游戏,注册会计师,工业产出。这一元分析仅限于只研究涉及企业家和企业家的性能。当测试预测效度的成就动机,至少构思是McClelland(1961),似乎是最好的限制有效分析的领域,它是断言是最直接的适用。例如,McClelland(1965)明确的辩论出对于成就动机大学性能不是一个合适的领域(1965)。最后,Spangler没有测试同质性的效应大小的假设(Hedges&Olkin,1985)。我们包括这个测试,因为未能评估这种假设可能导致聚合来自多个种群的效应大小导致平均效应大小估计并不适用于任何特定的人口(Hedges&Olkin,1985)。坚持密切合作,最合适的理论领，使用不同成就动机的措施。进行测试的同质性的影响,并控制了已知的团队和个人之间的差异研究,我们相信这个元分析有最好的机会准确识别成就动机的关系和性能。企业家的定义一个主要的考证领域的在企业家精神的研究,研究人员一贯的还没有确定和实施创“企业家”的定义(Kaufmann&Dant，1998年);因此,很难比较已有的研究结果。Mill(1848)提供了一个在最早的关于企业家精神定义，并且建议风险承受是主要特性去分别企业家和管理者。McClelland(1961)也认为,风险是一个至关重要的元素当企业家面临的时候,他认为企业家精神的定义应围绕责任的启动和负责的业务决策。McClelland(1961)认为,企业家应该包括小型企业的所有者和其他拥有决策责的管理人员。以下这些争论,一些研究人员既包括小型企业创始人和管理者，并且考察成就动机的角色。相比之下,Mill和McClelland,Schumpeter(1934)认为,企业家和管理者都面临不同的风险而不是根据他们对创新的强调。这背后的关键概念定义的创业理念是增长和创建一个新的业务机会,一个先前不存在。研究人员按照这个定义倾向于识别企业家那些发起或引导新合资企业的过程创造(Shane&Venkataraman,2000)。典型的企业家在此之后照样作为创始人的定义。7 TheRelationshipofAchievementMotivationtoEntrepreneurialBehavior:AMeta-AnalysisEntrepreneurshipisamajorfactorinthenationaleconomy;thus,itisimportanttounderstandthemotivationalcharacteristicsspurringpeopletobecomeentrepreneursandwhysomearemoresuccessfulthanothers.Inthisstudy,weconductedameta-analysisoftherelationshipbetweenachievementmotivationandvariablesassociatedwithentrepreneurialbehavior.Wefoundthatachievementmotivationwassignificantlycorrelatedwithbothchoiceofanentrepreneurialcareerandentrepreneurialperformance.Further,wefoundthatbothprojectiveandself-reportmeasuresofachievementmotivationwerevalid.Finally,knowngroupstudiesyieldedahighervaliditycoefficientthandidindividualdifferencestudies.Nearlyallsupportersofthecapitalisticsystemwouldagreethattheencouragementofsuccessfulinnovationsandentrepreneurshipisbeneficialforthecontinuedhealthandlong-termgrowthofanation"seconomy(Schumpeter,1961).Further,smallbusinessesaccountforover50%ofprivatesectoremploymentandU.Sgrossdomesticproduct(SmallBusinessAdministrationOfficeofAdvocacy,2003).Becauseentrepreneurshipisadominantfactorintheeconomy,researchershaveexaminedanumberoffactorsthatmayexplainentrepreneurialactivity.Thoughagooddealofrecentresearchhastendedtofocusonthecharacteristicsofthebusinessandindustryenvironmentorthecharacteristicsoftheentrepreneurialopportunityitself(Kaufmann&Dant,1998),ourunderstandingofentrepreneurshipwillnotbecompleteunlessweunderstandthemotivationoftheindividualsinvolved(Venkataraman,1997).Indeed,recentresearchsuggeststhatmotivationaltraitsareanimportantfactorinentrepreneurialactivityandsuccess(Baum,Locke.&Smith,2000;Stewart&Roth,2001).7 Researchonthemotivationaltraitsofentrepreneursseemsespeciallypromisingforhelpingtoidentifythoseindividualsthatmightbebestsuitedforidentifyingandexploitingentrepreneurialopportunitiesinthemarketplace(Shane&Venkataraman,2000).Forexample,individualtraitsandmotivationsmaybeusedbyschools,careercounselors,investors,governmentagencies,andsoontoidentifyindividualsthatmaybesuitedtoundertakeandsucceedinentrepreneurialventures.Despitethepotentialimportanceofindividualcharacteristics,therearestillmanyunansweredquestionsregardingtherolethatmotivationandpersonalcharacteristicshaveonentrepreneurialactivity(Shane&Venkataraman,2000).Therefore,inthisarticle,weseektobetterunderstandhowoneimportantmotivatingfactor,needforachievement,isrelatedtoboththechoiceofentrepreneurshipasacareerandperformanceinentrepreneurialroles.Theconceptofneedforachievement(nAch)wasformulatedin1950s(McClelland,Clark.Roby,&Atkinson1958).McClellandandhiscolleaguesarguedthathigh-nAchpeoplearemorelikelythanlow-nAchpeopletoengageinenergeticandinnovativeactivitiesthatrequireplanningforthefutureandentailanindividual"sresponsibilityfortaskoutcomes.7McClelland(1961)arguedthathigh-nAchpeopleshouldalsoprefertasksthatinvolveskillandeffort,provideclearperformancefeedback,andwereofmoderatechallengeorrisk,Healsoarguedthatentrepreneurialpositionshavemoreofthesecharacteristicsthanothertypesofpositions.Holland"s(1985)vocationchoicemodelsuggeststhatindividualswillbemostattractedtocareersthatoffertheenvironmentalcharacteristicsthatmatchtheirpersonality.Holland(1985)alsoarguedthatperformanceandcareersatisfactionarehigherwhenthereisagoodfitbetweenworkenvironmentcharacteristicsandpersonality.Therefore,aswassuggestedbyMcClelland(1961),itseemslikelythatindividualshighinnAchshould12 beattractedtoandperformwellinentrepreneurialjobs.Althoughthereisaconsiderablebodyofliteratureintheareaofachievementmotivationandentrepreneurship,thereareimportantissuesthathaveyettobeaddressed.Forexample.Johnson(1990)conductedatraditionalreviewofthisliteratureandconcludedthatthereisevidenceofarelationshipbetweenachievementmotivationandentrepreneurialactivity.However,acloseexaminationofJohnson"sreviewraisessomequestionsaboutthestrengthofthisconclusion.First,becauseofthenarrativenatureofthisreview,themagnitudeoftherelationshipbetweenachievementmotivationandentrepreneurialactivityisunclear.Infact,manyofthestudiesreviewedbyJohnsonshowednonsignificantrelationshipsbetweenachievementmotivationandentrepreneurialactivity.Johnson"sreviewalsoindicatedthattherewasconsiderablevarianceintheresultsacrossstudies,suggestingthattheremaybemoderatorsoftheachievementmotivation-entrepreneurialactivityrelationship.Incontrasttotraditionalreviews.meta-analysishasthepotentialtoaddresssomeoftheseissuesbyquantitativelycombiningtheresultsofindividualstudiestoestimatethemagnitudeoftherelationship(Hunter&Schmidt,1990)andbyallowingformaltestsofpotentialmoderatorsoftheserelationships.Thisstudyhasthreeobjectives.First,weassessthedegreeofsupportforMcClelland"sclaimbyconductingameta-analyticreviewoftheachievementmotivationandentrepreneurshipresearchthatissensitivetolevelofanalysisissues.Second,weidentifyandtestseveralpotentialmoderatorsoftherelationbetweenachievementmotivationandentrepreneurialaction.Third,wecomparethevalidityofachievementmotivationmeasuresasafunctionofmeasurementmethodology(e.g.,projectivemeasurevs.self-reportquestionnairemeasures).Wediscusstheimplicationsofourfindingsforfutureresearchandfororganizations12 andinstitutionsinterestedentrepreneurship.BACKGROUNDANDHYPOTHESESMuchoftheearlyworkonachievementmotivationwasconductedatthemacrolevelofanalysis.McClelland(1961)hypothesizedthatcountrieswithahighermeanlevelofnAchwouldshowmoreentrepreneurialactivityandeconomicgrowththanthosecountrieswithalowermeanlevelofnAch.Hefoundastatisticallysignificantrelationshipbetweenacountry"saveragelevelofnAch(asmeasuredbychildren"sstories)andthesubsequenteconomicgrowthofthatcountry.HealsofoundevidencefortherelationshipbetweennAchandentrepreneurialactivitybasedonhistoricalrecordsofearliersocieties.However,McClelland"sclaimshavenotgoneunchallenged(e.g.,Finison,1976;Frey,1984:Mazur&Rosa,1977).BothFinison(1976)andMazurandRosa(1977)failedtoreplicateMcClelland"sresultswhentheycorrectedforstatisticalerrorsandused1950nAchdatatopredicteconomicgrowththrough1971,andFrey(1984)foundproblemswithMcClelland"shistoricaltestsofnAch.Becauseitisverydifficulttoisolateonecausalfactoratthesocietallevelofanalysiswhensomanycausalfactorsareinvolved(Siehl&Martin,1990),itwouldseembettertotestMcClelland"sthesisatamoremicrolevel.Indeed,thereareanumberofstudiesthathavebeenconductedthatexaminedifferencesinachievementmotivationbetweenbothindividualsandknowngroups.Inindividualdifferencesstudies,researchershavetypicallymeasuredtheneedforachievementofindividualentrepreneursandcorrelatedthatmeasurewithindividualperformance(e.g.,firmgrowth,successfullygainingfunding).Regardingstudiesexploringdifferencesinachievementmotivationbetweengroups,researchershavetypicallyutilizedthe"known-group"researchapproachdiscussedintheconstructvalidityliterature.Thatis,researchers12 identifiedtwoormorepreexistinggroupsofindividuals(e.g.,entrepreneursversusmanagers,scientists:andprofessionals)andtestedformeandifferencesonsomedependentvariableamongthesegroups.Forexample,intermsofcareerchoice,researchershaveexaminedmeandifferencesinachievementmotivationtotestMcClelland"shypotheses.Regardingjobperformance,researchershaveassessedachievementmotivationdifferencesbetweenhighandlowperforminggroupsofentrepreneurs.Incontrasttosocietallevelstudies,individualandknowngroupstudiesallowcleanerassessmentofMcClelland"soriginalhypotheses.Whereassomeofthesemicrolevelstudieshaveshownasignificantrelationshipbetweenachievementmotivationandentrepreneurialbehavior,previousreviewsofthisliteraturehaveuncoveredthreemajorproblems,First.thesereviewsconsistentlypointtothelowinternalconsistencyandtest-retestreliabilityofthepreferredmeasureofnAch,theTAT(ThematicApperceptionTest:i.e.,bothtypesofreliabilityareoftenlessthan.60;Fineman,1977).Second,althoughalternativeachievementmotivationmeasures(i.e.,self-report)havebeendevelopedandtendtohavehighlevelsofinternalconsistencyandtest-reteststability(Fineman.1977;Spangler,1992),theseself-reportmeasuresagreeneitherwithprojectiveachievementmotivationmeasures(Fineman,1977;Spangler.1992)norwitheachother(Fineman,1977).Spangler(1992)reportedameta-analyticaveragecorrelationof0.09betweentheTATandtheself-reportmeasures.Furthermore,hefoundthatthedifferentachievementmotivationmeasurescorrelateddifferentlywithothervariablesandweredifferentiallyaffectedbymoderators.Giventheaforementionedtwopoints.wedecidedtoincludebothTATandquestionnairemeasuresinouranalysis.Third,previousreviewshavecombinedstudiesusingdifferentmicro(individualandgroup)levelsof12 analysisintheirreviews.However,inappropriateconclusionscanbedrawnwhenconceptsdevelopedatonelevelofanalysisaretestedatadifferentlevelofanalysis(OstroffSHarrison,1999):Thus,inouranalysisweseparatedthesetwolevelsSinceSpangler(1992)conductedapreviousmeta-analysisofachievementmotivationstudies,somekeydifferencesbetweenhisstudyandoursneedtobementioned.First,inSpangler"s(1992)study,only5outof115or4%ofthestudiesheusedinvolvedentrepreneursorentrepreneurialactivity.Inaddition,Spangler’sstudiesincludedaveryheterogeneousarrayofdependentvariables.includingIQtestscores,attitudes,sensationseeking,enrollmentinanacademichonorsprogram,performanceonaringlossgame,CPA,andindustrialoutput.Thismeta-analysiswasrestrictedtoonlystudiesinvolvingentrepreneursandentrepreneurialperformance.Whentestingthepredictivevalidityofachievementmotivation,atleastasconceivedbyMcClelland(1961),itseemsbesttorestrictvalidityanalysistothedomainwhereitisassertedtobemostdirectlyapplicable.Forexample,McClelland(1965)explicitlyarguedthatcollegeperformancewasnotanappropriatedomainforachievementmotivation(1965).Finally,Spanglerdidnottestthehomogeneityofeffectsizeassumption(Hedges&Olkin,1985).Weincludedthistest,becausefailuretoassessthisassumptioncanleadtotheaggregationofeffectsizesfrommultiplepopulationsresultinginanaverageeffectsizeestimatethatdoesnotgeneralizetoanyparticularpopulation(Hedges&Olkin,1985).Bystickingcloselytothemostappropriatetheoreticaldomain,usingdifferentmeasuresofachievementmotivation.conductingatestofhomogeneityofeffects,andcontrollingfordifferencesbetweenknowngroupandindividualstudies,webelievethatthismeta-analysishasthebestchanceofaccuratelyidentifyingtherelationshipbetween12 achievementmotivationandperformance.DefinitionsofEntrepreneurOnemajorcriticismofresearchintheareaofentrepreneurshipisthatresearchershavenotconsistentlydefinedandoperationalizedwhattheymeanby"entrepreneurs"(Kaufmann&Dant.1998);thus,itisdifficulttocomparefindingsacrossstudies.Mill(1848)providedoneoftheearliestdefinitionsofentrepreneurshipandsuggestedthatriskbearingwasthemajorfeaturethatseparatedentrepreneursfrommanagers.McClelland(1961)alsoarguedthatriskisanessentialelementfacedbyentrepreneurs,andhearguedthatthedefinitionofentrepreneurshipshouldcenterontheresponsibilitiesofinitiatingandbeingaccountableforbusinessdecisions.McClelland(1961)arguedthatentrepreneursshouldincludeboththeownersofsmallbusinessesandothermanagerswithdecision-makingresponsibilities.Followingthesearguments,someresearchershaveincludedbothsmallbusinessfoundersandmanagerswhenexaminingtheroleofachievementmotivation.IncontrasttoMillandMcClelland,Schumpeter(1934)arguedthatbothentrepreneursandmanagersfaceriskandinsteaddifferintermsoftheiremphasisoninnovation.Thekeynotionbehindthisdefinitionofentrepreneurshipistheideaofgrowthandcreationofanewbusinessopportunitywhereonedidnotexistpreviously.Researchersthatfollowthisdefinitiontendtoidentifyentrepreneurs.12'